[Special Feature] “Tourism × The Essence of Travel”: Why Do People Travel?
Introduction: What Are "Travel," "Journeys," "Tourism," and "Sightseeing"?
Although Basho says he is “setting out on the journey of *Oku no Hosomichi*,” he would likely not say he is “going on a trip.” The word “journey” carries the nuance of traveling alone, without relying on a travel agency, and implies a strong sense of purpose. “Trip,” on the other hand, refers to joining a tour organized by a travel agency or traveling with a group for enjoyment. If we were to translate these terms into English, “journey” would correspond to “travel,” while “trip” would correspond to “tour.”
The etymology of “travel” comes from the Latin word for “torture rack,” and as it derived from that to mean “suffering” or “hardship,” it implies a journey undertaken with a stern, resolute determination. The French word “travail” means “work” or “labor” and has no connotation of travel; it is closer in meaning to the English “suffering” or “hardship. ”Basho’s *Oku no Hosomichi* was written with the dual purposes of spreading haikai poetry and following in the footsteps of his revered predecessor, Saigyo. There is also a theory that it was a spy mission to survey the state of the nation. Other examples include Wakayama Bokusui, who spent his life traveling and composing poetry, and the wandering haiku poet Santoka.
Regarding travel, the French word “tour” exists, which, in addition to meaning “tower” or “skyscraper,” also means “a full circle,” “potter’s wheel,” or “lathe.” In short, it involves turning. You are likely familiar with the “Tour de France” (the Tour de France cycling race).
In Japan, “tourism” is translated as “kankō” (sightseeing), but the UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization) defines a “tourist” as “a person who leaves their place of residence for a period of at least 24 hours and up to one year, and then returns to that place.”Travel purposes include “recreation, holidays, sports, business, meetings, conferences, research, visiting friends and acquaintances, recuperation, and missionary work.” Based on this definition, “tourism” is not “sightseeing” but “travel,” and it becomes clear that travel has numerous purposes. Companies involved in travel, lodging, food and beverage, and transportation constitute the “tourism industry,” which targets all travelers regardless of their travel purpose; this is not the “sightseeing industry” but the “travel industry.”
Many surveys in Japan categorize travel purposes into “sightseeing,” “business,” “visiting family,” and “combined business and sightseeing,” and then analyze the travel patterns of sightseeing travelers. Based on differences in traveler behavior and the resources involved, the author further categorizes tourism by purpose into “(narrowly defined) sightseeing and learning,” “recreation,” and “accommodation,” and analyzes travelers and travel destinations accordingly.
1. The Purposes of “Travel” from a Historical Perspective
Let us introduce several examples by categorizing the purposes of “travel” prior to the popularization of “tourism.”
(1) “In Search of a More Comfortable Life”
Our ancestors were people who roamed the savannas of Africa about 100,000 years ago; they left Africa and settled in Asia and Western Europe.They then traveled north along the Pacific coast of Asia, crossed into Alaska, and between 10,000 and 15,000 years ago, their settlements spread throughout North America; they later moved south and settled across the entire South American continent. Meanwhile, even earlier, some people traveled from Southeast Asia to Australia via the islands and settled there (W.H. McNeill, 2008). Our ancestors moved in search of a more comfortable life. The purpose of such “journeys” is linked to the immigrants who left Japan for Brazil and Hawaii during the Meiji and Taisho periods, as well as to the mass migration from Ireland to the United States, Canada, and Great Britain around 1854 due to the Potato Famine. Even today, there are people in the Middle East who are forced to become refugees due to wars sparked by religious conflicts. These are migrations in search of a safer and more secure life.
(2) “Journeys Accompanying Wars for Territorial Expansion”
Alexander the Great fought continuously for eight years starting in 334 BC, coming to rule a vast region spanning Persia, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, and India. He respected the cultures of the regions he conquered and sought to fuse Greek civilization with the civilizations of the conquered Orient, as well as to integrate the peoples of those lands. Thus, the splendid Hellenistic culture was born.
(3) "Journeys of Learning"
Xuanzang’s journey to India. He left China in 607 at the age of 28 (though other accounts exist) with the aim of deciphering the original Chinese Buddhist scriptures. In 645, his 38-year journey of study came to an end. The distance traveled was approximately 25,000 kilometers, and the journey lasted 17 years and 4 months. He authored the 12-volume travelogue *Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang*.
In 1897 (Meiji 30), Kawaguchi Ekai traveled to Tibet in search of original Buddhist texts. While his purpose was the same as Xuanzang’s, Ekai’s journey was far more arduous.To enter Tibet, which was strictly closed to foreigners, it took him three years to travel from Nepal via a secret route, relying on a compass. However, after staying for a year, he was discovered to be Japanese and expelled. Believing his research to be incomplete, he set out again in 1904 (Meiji 37) for India and Nepal, where he studied Sanskrit while preparing for his return to Tibet, which took him eight years. This time, he received a warm welcome in Tibet.
Around the same time, architect Chuta Ito traveled from March 1902 (Meiji 35) to June 1905 (Meiji 38) through China, Burma, India, Egypt, the Middle East, Germany, Hungary, Istanbul, and finally to his destination, Greece, in search of the roots of Horyuji Temple’s architecture. He traveled alone on horseback and by donkey, without hiring a guide.Afterward, he spent 35 nights in Europe and America—a sort of addendum to his journey, as these stops were required to obtain permission for his overseas travels. Upon his return, he designed Meiji Jingu, Yushima Seido, Tsukiji Honganji, the Okura Shukokan, and the Great Kanto Earthquake Memorial Hall. Writers such as Kafu Nagai and Tekkan Yosano, along with painters like Seiki Kuroda and Tsuguharu Fujita, set off for France, the land of their dreams. At that time, a trip to Paris was still a distant dream for the common people; even the poet Sakutaro Hagiwara muttered in 1913 (Taisho 2), “Though I long to go to France, France is far too distant.” While Japanese school trips can be considered a prime example of “educational travel” on a global scale, the Grand Tour of England—part of the English-speaking world—is invariably featured in the history of tourism.The Grand Tour began in the 17th century and reached its peak in the early 18th century. At its height, 4,000 people crossed from Britain to the continent each year. It continued until the 19th century. The children of wealthy British aristocrats would travel to France—then a cultural leader—to study French and social etiquette, and then to Italy to experience the culture and art of ancient Greece and Rome before returning home.These young people were accompanied by tutors, and the duration of their journeys ranged from a few months to one or two years, and in some cases, as long as eight years. Given their youth, it seems many of them spent their time indulging in leisure and entertainment. In Japan, during an era when maritime safety had not yet been established, the missions to the Sui and Tang dynasties served as educational journeys.
(4) Trade and Commercial Journeys
Marco Polo traveled to the Yuan Dynasty, a vast empire at the time, where he won the emperor’s favor and served for 17 years. During that time, he toured various regions of China and reported his findings to the emperor. After returning to Venice, he was taken prisoner in Genoa, and it was while in prison that he dictated (though there are differing accounts) *The Travels of Marco Polo*. This book had a profound impact on European society and served as a precursor to the Age of Discovery.It is said that Zipangu, located to the east of China, is overflowing with gold. For Westerners, “India” was originally a general term for the Eastern world; it was imagined as a land blessed with abundant resources, including gold and spices, and was a place of great longing. Based on the theory that the Earth is spherical, Columbus was convinced that he could reach India by sailing westward from Spain.
From 1492 onward, he undertook four voyages to the West Indies, Central America, and northern South America. He declared that he had discovered a western sea route to India. His name is still preserved in the West Indies today. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, India. The following year, he brought spices back to Portugal.In 1522, Magellan’s expedition (Magellan died in the Philippines) entered the Pacific Ocean through the Strait of Magellan, circumnavigated the globe, and proved the theory of a spherical Earth.
(5) Religious Objectives—Santiago de Compostela, the Pilgrimage Route
In the early 9th century (813), a coffin believed to contain the remains of St. James—who was martyred in Jerusalem in 44 AD—was “discovered,” and a small church dedicated to St. James was built over it. The monarchy and the Church, both facing crises, exploited the legend of this discovery to organize the pilgrimage.There is a legend that Saint James, appearing as a knight on a white horse, came to the aid of the Christian forces—who were struggling in the Reconquista (the campaign to reclaim the homeland)—and led them to victory, making this site a spiritual symbol of the Reconquista. It grew into the largest pilgrimage site of the Middle Ages, reaching its peak from the late 11th to the 13th century, with as many as 500,000 pilgrims visiting annually at its height.
However, the number of pilgrims plummeted in the 16th century due to the Black Death, the Hundred Years’ War, and the Reformation. In Protestant countries, the veneration of saints and pilgrimages were banned, while among Catholics, devotion to the Virgin Mary flourished. With the remains of St. James lost, the number of pilgrims remained drastically reduced from the mid-19th century onward.Its designation as a World Heritage Site in 1993 played a major role in the increase in pilgrims seen today. In Japan, religious travel includes the Kumano Pilgrimage, which continued from the Heian period through the early Muromachi period, as well as visits to Ise Grand Shrine and the Shikoku 88 Temple Pilgrimage, which became increasingly popular thereafter.
2. The Emergence of “Leisure Travel”
For individuals to travel freely, they need to have sufficient time and money, a strong desire to travel, the development of transportation and accommodation facilities to accommodate them, and the existence of travel agencies to support their journeys.
Britain was the first to make these conditions possible. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, and Watt’s improvements to the steam engine led to the advent of steamships and steam locomotives.In 1841, Thomas Cook devised the world’s first package tour, which included meals and rail travel, allowing travelers to leave everything from departure to return entirely in the hands of the tour operator. It was a huge success, and Cook subsequently sent many customers to destinations such as Scotland, Egypt, the Paris Exposition, and Switzerland. Within Britain, the development of railways made seaside resorts like Brighton and Blackpool increasingly popular.
In Japan, the tradition of enjoyable travel began with pilgrimages to Ise along the Tōkaidō. These journeys were essentially sightseeing trips undertaken under the pretext of visiting shrines and temples. In Yaji and Kita’s *Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige*, the text vividly describes the pleasures of travel, including the development of inns and teahouses along the highway and the chance to savor dishes and foods not usually available, such as tororo soup in Mariko and shigure clams in Kuwana.A senryu poem from that era reads, “Pilgrimage to Ise—just a quick stop at the Grand Shrine,” satirizing the fact that the real purpose was actually to enjoy oneself in the old market town near the shrine.
For the issuance of the travel permits required for travel, it was sufficient if the purpose of the trip was a hot spring cure to maintain the physical strength of farmers or a visit to a shrine or temple to foster deep religious faith and a sense of order.
The advent of the railroad in the Meiji era brought about a major transformation in travel. It became possible to travel to scenic natural areas in Tohoku, Kyushu, and Hokkaido. The number of foreign visitors increased, and activities such as mountain climbing, golf, and vacation homes were introduced, primarily by the British.
Although it lagged slightly behind Thomas Cook, the modern travel industry was born in Japan as well. In 1893 (Meiji 26), the Welcome Society was established at the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce as an organization to attract and accommodate foreign travelers. However, due to declining membership fees and an economic downturn, the society’s funds dried up, and its performance deteriorated.With expectations for the establishment of a powerful organization to take over the society’s operations, Kei Hara, President of the Railway Bureau and later Prime Minister, decided to cover 25,000 yen—equivalent to 50% of the new organization’s annual budget—from the railway budget.The remainder was funded by contributions from related industries such as private railways, hotels, and steamship companies, as well as support from the business and political communities. Consequently, on March 12, 1912 (Meiji 45), the voluntary organization “Japan Tourist Bureau” was established. The name was chosen in English because it was considered understandable in both Japan and the United States.The “T” in JTB stood for “Tourist,” not the current “Travel.” This marked the birth of Japan’s first modern travel agency and the country’s sole agency for facilitating visits by foreign tourists.
In the post-war Showa era, starting in the 1960s, travel became increasingly popular and widespread. Major events such as the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and the 1970 Osaka Expo (commonly known as the Osaka World Fair) served as catalysts for this growth. For transportation, people could now choose from a variety of options—cars, trains, and airplanes—depending on distance and time. Accommodations also expanded, with hotels joining traditional ryokan inns. Following the Expo, “Discover Japan” was launched as a new travel trend, and women became the primary travelers.
Since the liberalization of overseas travel in 1964, the number of outbound travelers has been on an upward trend, surpassing 10 million in 1990 and reaching 18.95 million in 2018.In recent years, outbound travel has shown signs of stagnation. In contrast, inbound tourism has surged following the promotion of inbound tourism by then-Prime Minister Koizumi in 2003, the enactment of the Basic Act on the Promotion of Japan as a Tourism-Oriented Nation (2006) as a concrete measure, and the establishment of the Japan Tourism Agency (2008). Inbound tourism has skyrocketed, surpassing 30 million visitors in 2018.
3. The Benefits of Travel
What do travelers hope to gain from their trips? As mentioned above, “journeys” have clear objectives. So what are the purposes of going on a “trip”?
First, the desire for change. People want to break free from the same daily routine (stagnation) for a week, a year, or even every day. With the COVID-19 pandemic, people spent more time at home, and daily life became even more rigid than before. The fact that the “GoTo Travel” campaign was controversial demonstrates just how significant its impact was. People seek a change of pace by traveling on weekends, allowing them to return to their regular routine for the following weeks. They spend the year repeating this cycle. In Europe and the United States, vacations are well-established.Spending an extended period at a resort in a different environment allows people to forget the trivialities of their daily lives, clear their minds (vacuum → vacation), and feel refreshed both mentally and physically. Spending a vacation in a resort blessed with natural beauty and pleasant weather makes it possible to sustain a year of routine life.
Second, a longing for the unknown. I want to go to that country or that city. I want to see the breathtaking views of the Alps. I want to go to an art museum and see that painting. I want to satisfy these desires. Even if you look at photos or videos beforehand, standing in front of Iguazu Falls, you’ll be overwhelmed by its sheer power. The color and texture of the marble at Florence’s Cathedral (Duomo) can’t be fully appreciated unless you touch it yourself.
Third, the motivation to achieve personal fulfillment and self-expansion. Goals such as conquering Japan’s 100 Famous Mountains, riding every JR line, or visiting a country to put the language you’ve learned to the test.
Fourth, fulfilling the joy of spending time with friends and family and deepening relationships through travel.
Fifth, many people travel abroad for various reasons to learn about a country and interact with its people. Conversely, people come to Japan from abroad to learn about the country and interact with Japanese people. Through such mutual exchange, we gain an understanding of different cultures and contribute to international peace and stability. In 1967, the United Nations designated it the International Year of Tourism with the slogan “Tourism, Passport to Peace.” Possessing nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles constitutes “hard power,” whereas cross-cultural understanding represents “soft power.” Even when Japan experiences political friction with its neighbors, China and South Korea, the Japanese public remains relatively calm and composed because people from both sides travel to each other’s countries, experiencing their merits and gaining an understanding of their people.
Sixth, when foreigners and Japanese citizens travel within the country, they contribute to regional revitalization and the development of the national economy. In the travel industry, the decline in overseas travel by Japanese citizens is further exacerbating financial difficulties. The UNWTO encourages the promotion of ecotourism to support economic development in developing countries.
Conclusion
Currently, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, domestic and international travel by Japanese citizens, as well as visits to Japan by foreigners, have been significantly restricted, placing the travel industry—including transportation, lodging, and travel agencies—in an extremely difficult situation. However, as we have seen, travel is essential for people to lead comfortable lives. “When winter comes, spring is not far behind.” I will conclude this article by patiently enduring the current situation and hoping that the day when we can move freely will arrive as soon as possible.
